Metric: Rate of Torque Development

Rate of Torque Development, commonly abbreviated as RTD, measures how quickly torque is produced around a joint. In simple terms, it shows how fast a client can generate joint-specific rotational force.

Torque tells you how much rotational force a client can produce. RTD tells you how quickly they can produce it.

RTD is useful because many real-world tasks require force to be produced quickly. Examples include sprinting, jumping, landing, cutting, climbing stairs, recovering balance, stepping quickly, changing direction and reacting to unexpected movement demands.

A high RTD generally suggests the client can generate torque rapidly in the tested position. A low RTD may suggest slower rapid force production, but it may also reflect pain, hesitation, low confidence, fatigue, poor instructions, poor familiarisation, inconsistent testing setup or signal-processing differences.

Research on rapid force development highlights that RFD and RTD are increasingly used to characterise explosive strength in athletes, older adults and clinical populations, but also emphasises that methodology strongly affects interpretation.

Introduction

A client may be strong, but not fast.

They may eventually produce high torque around a joint, but if it takes too long to reach that torque, the result may not transfer well to tasks that happen quickly. This is where Rate of Torque Development becomes useful.

RTD helps answer:

“How quickly can this client produce joint torque?”

This can be especially useful in tasks where time is limited. For example, a client may only have a short window to produce useful ankle torque during running, knee torque during landing, hip torque during change of direction, or lower-limb torque during balance recovery.

In Measurz, RTD can help professionals monitor rapid strength qualities, compare sides, track changes across exercise blocks, identify differences between maximal strength and fast force production, and educate clients about why “being strong” and “being able to produce force quickly” are not always the same thing.

RTD should not be used as a diagnosis, clearance tool or standalone decision-maker. It is most useful when interpreted with peak torque, symptoms, movement quality, rate of force development, impulse, time to peak, function and the client’s goals.

Quick Summary

• Metric name: Rate of Torque Development

• Common abbreviation: RTD

• What it means: How quickly torque is produced

• Simple formula: Change in torque ÷ change in time

• Common units: N·m/s or N·m·s⁻¹

• Other possible units: lb·ft/s, kgf·m/s, kgf·cm/s or device-specific torque-time units

• Common testing methods: Isometric dynamometry, isokinetic dynamometry, fixed dynamometry, handheld dynamometry, load cells and torque-time analysis

• Best use: Rapid joint-strength profiling, side-to-side comparison, monitoring explosive strength, tracking training response and identifying differences between peak torque and rapid torque production

• High RTD: Usually indicates faster torque production in the tested movement and position

• Low RTD: Usually indicates slower torque production, but the reason must be interpreted with context

• Major limitation: RTD is sensitive to testing instructions, start threshold, sampling rate, filtering, time window and familiarisation

What Is Rate of Torque Development?

Rate of Torque Development measures how quickly torque rises over time.

Torque is rotational force around a joint. RTD describes the speed of that torque production.

A simple way to understand it:

Torque = how much rotational force was produced.
RTD = how quickly that rotational force was produced.

Simple formula

RTD = change in torque ÷ change in time

For example:

• Torque increases from 0 N·m to 120 N·m

• Time taken = 0.20 seconds

• RTD = 120 ÷ 0.20

• RTD = 600 N·m/s

This means the client developed torque at a rate of 600 newton-metres per second over that time window.

How Is RTD Measured?

RTD is calculated from a torque-time curve.

A torque-time curve shows how torque changes from the beginning of a contraction to the end of the test. RTD is usually calculated from the steepness of that curve.

A steeper rise means torque increased quickly.
A flatter rise means torque increased more slowly.

Common measurement methods include:

• Isometric dynamometry

• Isokinetic dynamometry

• Fixed dynamometry

• Handheld dynamometry with torque calculation

• Load cell systems with lever-arm measurement

• Muscle Meter-style testing where force and lever arm can be used to calculate torque

• Device software that calculates torque-time metrics

RTD can be reported in:

• N·m/s

• N·m·s⁻¹

• lb·ft/s

• kgf·m/s

• kgf·cm/s

• Device-specific torque-time units

The safest approach is to record the exact unit, device, joint angle, lever arm, time window and calculation method.

Why RTD Is Used

RTD is used because many activities do not give the client enough time to reach maximum torque.

Peak torque may take several hundred milliseconds or longer to develop. Some movement tasks happen much faster than that. If a client cannot generate torque quickly enough, their peak torque may not be fully available during the task.

RTD can help professionals understand:

• How quickly a client can produce joint-specific force

• Whether rapid torque production is changing over time

• Whether one side develops torque more slowly than the other

• Whether a client has high peak torque but poor rapid torque production

• Whether fatigue, pain or apprehension affects explosive intent

• Whether training is improving fast force production

RTD and related rapid force metrics are used because rapid contractions are relevant for athletes, older adults and clinical populations. However, methodological reviews emphasise that RTD is sensitive to how the test is performed and analysed, so protocol consistency is essential.

What RTD Measures

RTD measures rapid joint torque production.

It may provide context about:

• Explosive strength

• Rapid muscle force production

• Neuromuscular drive

• Early force contribution

• Joint-specific power potential

• Balance recovery capacity

• Sport-specific rapid movement capacity

• Side-to-side differences

• Response to high-speed or intent-focused training

• Fatigue-related slowing

RTD does not directly measure:

• Peak strength

• Tissue status

• Pain source

• Movement quality

• Skill

• Coordination

• Balance

• Overall fitness

• Injury risk on its own

• Readiness to return to sport

RTD is one part of the performance profile. It becomes more meaningful when interpreted with peak torque and task demands.

Types of RTD

RTD can be calculated in different ways. The method must be recorded because different RTD values are not interchangeable.

Early RTD

Early RTD is calculated during the first part of the contraction, often within windows such as:

• 0–50 ms

• 0–100 ms

• 0–200 ms

Early RTD may be more relevant for tasks that happen quickly, such as landing, stepping, sprinting, balance recovery and change of direction. It is also usually more sensitive to measurement noise and start-point detection.

Late RTD

Late RTD is calculated over a later time window, such as:

• 100–200 ms

• 100–300 ms

• 200–300 ms

Late RTD may be more related to maximal strength capacity, depending on the test and population.

Peak RTD

Peak RTD is the highest instantaneous or calculated rate of torque rise during the contraction.

Peak RTD can be useful, but it can also be sensitive to noise, sampling rate and filtering.

Average RTD

Average RTD is calculated over a defined time window.

This is often more interpretable than peak RTD because the time window is explicit.

Relative RTD

Relative RTD may be expressed relative to body mass or peak torque. This can help compare clients of different sizes or understand how quickly they develop torque relative to their own maximal capacity.

RTD vs Peak Torque

RTD and peak torque answer different questions.

Peak torque asks:
“How much rotational force can the client produce?”

RTD asks:
“How quickly can the client produce rotational force?”

A client can have:

• High peak torque and high RTD

• High peak torque and low RTD

• Low peak torque and high early RTD

• Low peak torque and low RTD

This matters because a client who produces high torque slowly may perform well in slow strength tasks but still struggle in rapid tasks.

For example:

• A client may have strong knee extension peak torque but poor early RTD.

• This may matter during sprinting, landing or rapid direction change.

• The same client may still perform well in slower gym-based strength tasks.

RTD should be interpreted with peak torque, not instead of it.

RTD vs Rate of Force Development

Rate of Force Development, or RFD, measures how quickly force is produced.

RTD measures how quickly torque is produced.

They are closely related, but RTD is more joint-specific because it accounts for the rotational effect around a joint.

For example:

• RFD may describe how quickly force rises during a push or pull.

• RTD may describe how quickly knee extension torque, ankle plantar flexion torque or shoulder rotation torque rises.

If the lever arm is known, force can be converted to torque. This makes RTD especially useful for joint-specific interpretation.

RTD vs Time to Peak

RTD and Time to Peak are related but different.

RTD asks:
“How steeply did torque rise?”

Time to Peak asks:
“How long did it take to reach the highest torque?”

A client may have:

• High RTD and short time to peak

• High peak torque but long time to peak

• Low RTD and long time to peak

• High early RTD but a lower peak torque

Using RTD with Time to Peak can help professionals understand the client’s torque-time strategy.

What Does High RTD Mean?

A high RTD usually means the client produced torque quickly in the tested position.

This may suggest:

• Faster joint torque production

• Better explosive strength expression

• Better early force contribution

• Faster neuromuscular response

• Greater ability to access torque quickly

• Improved rapid strength adaptation

• Better performance potential in time-limited tasks

High RTD may be a positive finding when:

• It improves under the same protocol

• Peak torque is maintained or improved

• Symptoms remain stable or improve

• Movement quality remains acceptable

• The client’s goal requires rapid force production

• It aligns with better function or performance

However, high RTD is not automatically better in every setting. It must match the client’s goal and test context.

A high RTD may be less meaningful if:

• The test was noisy

• Start detection was inconsistent

• The client pre-tensioned before the test

• The device sampling rate was too low

• The value came from one inconsistent trial

• Peak torque dropped substantially

• The movement task does not require rapid torque production

Safer interpretation

“RTD was higher in this test, suggesting faster torque production under this protocol. This should be interpreted with peak torque, symptoms, movement quality, time window and task demands.”

What Does Low RTD Mean?

A low RTD usually means the client developed torque more slowly during the tested movement.

This may suggest:

• Slower rapid force production

• Reduced explosive strength

• Pain-related hesitation

• Apprehension or low confidence

• Fatigue

• Poor familiarisation

• Reduced maximal strength

• Poor test instruction

• Inconsistent start point

• Poor setup or stabilisation

• Lower neuromuscular drive

Low RTD does not automatically mean the client is weak. A client may have good peak torque but still produce it slowly.

Low RTD may be meaningful when:

• It is consistently lower than baseline

• It is lower on one side

• It occurs with slower movement performance

• It occurs with increased symptoms or apprehension

• It aligns with poor early impulse or longer time to peak

• It is relevant to the client’s activity demands

Low RTD may be less meaningful when:

• The test was not intended to be explosive

• The client did not understand the instruction

• Only one trial was recorded

• The start threshold changed

• The device or software changed

• The client was guarding due to discomfort

Safer interpretation

“RTD was lower in this test today, which may indicate slower torque production across the measured time window. This should be interpreted with peak torque, baseline, symptoms, test quality and task goals.”

How Health and Fitness Professionals Can Use RTD With Clients

1. Explain the difference between strength and speed of strength

RTD is useful for client education because it explains why “strong” does not always mean “quick”.

You might say:

“Peak torque tells us how much joint force you can produce. RTD tells us how quickly you can access that force.”

This can help clients understand why they may perform well in slow strength tasks but struggle with faster movement demands.

2. Track explosive strength qualities

RTD can help monitor whether training is improving rapid torque production.

This may be relevant for:

• Sprinting

• Jumping

• Cutting

• Landing

• Throwing

• Rapid stepping

• Balance recovery

• High-speed resistance exercise

3. Compare sides

RTD may reveal differences that peak torque does not.

For example:

• Right knee extension peak torque and left knee extension peak torque may be similar.

• But the left side may show slower RTD.

This may suggest that both sides can eventually produce similar torque, but one side accesses torque more slowly.

4. Monitor response to training

RTD may improve after training that emphasises rapid intent, explosive actions or high-speed strength work.

In older adults, high-speed resistance training has been studied for its effect on RTD and fear of falling, supporting the idea that rapid torque production is a relevant training outcome in some populations.

5. Add context to peak torque

RTD should not replace peak torque. It adds context.

Example:

• Peak torque improves but RTD does not: maximal strength improved, but rapid torque production may not have changed.

• RTD improves but peak torque does not: the client may be accessing torque faster without changing maximal capacity.

• Both improve: stronger and faster torque production may be developing.

6. Guide exercise progression

RTD may help decide whether a client is ready to progress from slow controlled strength work toward faster movement tasks.

For example:

• Low peak torque and low RTD may suggest a need to build base strength first.

• Good peak torque but low RTD may suggest adding rapid-intent or explosive work when appropriate.

• Improving RTD with stable symptoms may support progression, depending on movement quality and goals.

What RTD Means in Different Client Populations

General fitness clients

For general fitness clients, RTD is usually not the first metric to focus on. Peak force, peak torque, movement quality and consistency may be more practical at first.

However, RTD can be useful when the client’s goals include:

• Faster movement

• Improved athleticism

• Better balance reactions

• Jumping

• Running

• Agility

• Returning to dynamic exercise

Use RTD mainly as a trend metric, not as a pass/fail value.

Athletes and sport clients

For athletes, RTD can be highly relevant because many sport actions happen quickly.

Examples include:

• Sprint acceleration

• Jump take-off

• Landing

• Change of direction

• Tackling or contact preparation

• Throwing

• Kicking

• Rapid deceleration

Research on force and torque development supports its use for characterising explosive strength in athletes, while also warning that methodology must be tightly controlled.

For athletes, RTD should be interpreted with:

• Peak torque

• Peak force

• RFD

• Impulse

• Time to peak

• Jump or sprint performance

• Training load

• Fatigue state

• Sport demands

Older adults

For older adults, RTD may be important because rapid force production can matter for balance recovery and fall-related tasks. Research has reported that lower-limb RTD or RFD is affected by ageing and may be relevant to postural balance and falls history, although findings across studies are not always consistent.

Studies in community-dwelling older adults have examined RTD in relation to falls. One study reported that RTD was more strongly associated with falls history than other performance measures, while another prospective study investigated lower-limb RTD and torque steadiness in relation to future falls.

For older adults, RTD should be interpreted with:

• Balance

• Gait

• Sit-to-stand performance

• Confidence

• Fear of falling

• Lower-limb strength

• Symptoms

• Functional goals

RTD may be useful, but it should not replace practical functional tests.

Clients with pain or persistent symptoms

For clients with pain, RTD can be affected by discomfort, apprehension or protective strategy.

Low RTD may reflect:

• Pain-related hesitation

• Guarding

• Reduced confidence

• Fear of fast effort

• Reduced force capacity

• Fatigue

• Poor familiarisation

• Test discomfort

Record symptoms and pain score every time. Avoid saying low RTD proves inhibition or damage. Use safer wording such as:

“This result may suggest slower torque production during this test today.”

Post-injury or return-to-performance clients

RTD can provide useful context during return-to-performance monitoring because fast torque production may remain limited even when peak torque improves.

For example:

• Knee extension peak torque may improve, but RTD may remain lower.

• Ankle plantar flexion torque may be similar between sides, but early RTD may differ.

• Shoulder rotation torque may be adequate, but rapid torque production may still lag.

RTD should support monitoring, not standalone clearance.

Youth clients

For youth clients, RTD should be interpreted carefully because growth, maturation, coordination and test familiarity can strongly affect rapid force production.

Changes may reflect:

• Maturation

• Improved coordination

• Better understanding of the test

• Growth

• Increased body mass

• Training adaptation

• Confidence

Use baseline comparison and repeat testing rather than adult reference values unless youth-specific data are available for the exact protocol.

Higher body mass clients

For higher body mass clients, absolute RTD may be high, but relative RTD may provide more useful context for bodyweight tasks.

If the client needs to move their own body quickly, such as during stepping, running, jumping or balance recovery, interpreting RTD relative to body mass may be useful. However, scaling methods can affect interpretation, so normalisation should be applied consistently.

What If RTD Is Reported Relative to Body Weight or Peak Torque?

RTD can be reported in different relative formats.

Relative to body mass

This may be expressed as:

• N·m/s/kg

• N·m·s⁻¹·kg⁻¹

This helps answer:

“How quickly is the client producing torque relative to their body size?”

This may be useful for bodyweight tasks such as running, jumping, climbing stairs or balance recovery.

Relative to peak torque

RTD may also be expressed relative to peak torque.

This helps answer:

“How quickly does the client access their own maximal torque capacity?”

For example, two clients may have different peak torque values, but one may reach a higher percentage of their maximum torque earlier in the contraction.

Important limitation

Relative RTD can be useful, but it does not remove all differences related to:

• Age

• Sex

• Body composition

• Limb length

• Training history

• Sport

• Testing familiarity

• Pain

• Motivation

• Device method

Relative values should be interpreted with the exact test protocol.

Normative Data, Reference Data and Benchmarks

Are there universal RTD norms?

No. There are no true universal RTD norms that apply across all joints, tests, devices, populations and calculation methods.

RTD values depend on:

• Joint tested

• Movement tested

• Contraction type

• Joint angle

• Device

• Sampling frequency

• Filtering

• Start threshold

• Time window

• Lever arm

• Body position

• Stabilisation

• Instruction

• Familiarisation

• Age

• Sex

• Training history

• Symptoms

Because RTD is sensitive to testing and analysis methods, universal norms are not appropriate.

What does peer-reviewed research support?

The strongest evidence supports using RTD as a protocol-specific metric.

A major review on RFD describes rapid force development as useful for athletes, older adults and clinical populations, while emphasising that methodological decisions such as instruction, signal processing and contraction onset detection strongly influence results.

Research on handheld dynamometry after stroke reported that isometric RTD could be measured reliably, but isometric strength showed stronger relationships with gait velocity than RTD in that specific population. This means RTD may be useful, but it does not always add more information than peak strength for every client or outcome.

Recent work on portable devices suggests that peak torque measurement may be more consistent than RTD measurement, with RTD measurement properties being less consistent due to sampling rate and processing differences. This reinforces the need for caution when interpreting RTD from different devices.

Best evidence-based approach for Measurz

For most professional settings, interpret RTD using:

• Client baseline

• Side-to-side comparison

• Same test, same device and same protocol

• Time-window-specific comparison

• Body-mass-normalised values where relevant

• Published reference data only when the protocol and population match

• Related measures such as peak torque, RFD, impulse, time to peak and functional performance

When published reference values are useful

Published RTD reference values may be useful only when they match:

• Same joint

• Same movement

• Same joint angle

• Same device

• Same contraction instruction

• Same time window

• Same calculation method

• Same population

• Same units

If these details do not match, published data should be treated as broad context, not a strict benchmark.

Misconceptions About RTD

Misconception 1: RTD is the same as strength

No. RTD measures how quickly torque is produced. Peak torque measures how much torque is produced.

Misconception 2: High RTD always means better performance

Not always. High RTD is useful when the task requires rapid torque production. It may be less relevant for slower strength or endurance tasks.

Misconception 3: Low RTD always means weakness

No. Low RTD may reflect slow force production, but it can also reflect pain, hesitation, poor instructions, fatigue, poor familiarisation or device processing.

Misconception 4: RTD can be compared across devices

Not safely unless the device, sampling rate, filtering and calculation method are comparable.

Misconception 5: Early RTD and peak RTD are the same

They are not. Early RTD, late RTD, average RTD and peak RTD may tell different stories.

Misconception 6: RTD has universal norms

No. RTD is highly protocol-specific and should be interpreted using matched reference data or repeated testing.

Limitations of RTD Testing

RTD is useful but sensitive.

It can be affected by:

• Device type

• Sampling rate

• Filtering

• Start threshold

• Contraction onset detection

• Time window

• Joint angle

• Lever arm

• Stabilisation

• Instructions

• Pre-tension

• Countermovement

• Familiarisation

• Pain

• Fatigue

• Motivation

• Effort

• Test anxiety

• Assessor technique

The most important limitation is that small methodological changes can meaningfully change RTD. This makes RTD less forgiving than peak torque.

Where possible, use RTD as a trend metric under tightly standardised conditions.

How to Improve RTD Testing Quality

To improve RTD data quality:

• Use the same device each time.

• Use the same joint angle.

• Use the same body position.

• Use the same lever arm.

• Use the same instructions.

• Use clear explosive intent cues.

• Avoid pre-tension unless it is part of the protocol.

• Use familiarisation trials.

• Record multiple trials.

• Use the same time window.

• Use the same start threshold.

• Use the same filtering method.

• Use the same scoring method.

• Record symptoms and pain.

• Record body mass if normalising.

• Interpret RTD with peak torque and task demands.

For early-phase RTD, trial selection and the number of repetitions can affect reliability, and recent research has specifically examined how to improve early-phase RTD assessment in isometric knee extension and flexion.

How to Record RTD in Measurz

Record:

• Metric: Rate of Torque Development

• Score/result: RTD value

• Units: N·m/s, lb·ft/s, kgf·m/s, kgf·cm/s or device-specific unit

• RTD type: early RTD, late RTD, peak RTD, average RTD or relative RTD

• Time window: for example, 0–50 ms, 0–100 ms, 0–200 ms or 100–200 ms

• Joint tested: knee, hip, ankle, shoulder, elbow, trunk or other

• Movement tested: extension, flexion, abduction, adduction, internal rotation, external rotation, plantar flexion or dorsiflexion

• Side: left, right or bilateral

• Dominance: dominant or non-dominant side

• Position: seated, standing, supine, prone, side-lying or sport-specific position

• Joint angle: if relevant

• Lever arm: distance from joint axis to force application point

• Device used: handheld dynamometer, fixed dynamometer, isokinetic dynamometer, Muscle Meter, load cell or other device

• Contraction type: usually isometric for RTD testing, unless otherwise defined

• Instruction: “fast and hard”, “as quickly as possible”, or other exact cue

• Trial number: trial 1, trial 2, trial 3

• Final score method: best score, average score or selected trial

• Body mass: if normalising RTD

• Pain score: before, during or after testing

• Symptoms: pain, apprehension, fatigue, cramping or none

• Effort quality: explosive, hesitant, submaximal or unclear

• Related metrics: peak torque, impulse, RFD, time to peak, fatigue index or functional test

• Baseline comparison: previous result

• Retest date: planned follow-up

• Progress note: contextual factors that may explain the result

Measurz should be used to support measurement, comparison, monitoring, education and progress tracking. RTD should not be positioned as diagnosing a condition or confirming readiness on its own.

Practical Examples

Example 1: High peak torque, low RTD

A client has strong knee extension peak torque but low early RTD.

This may suggest they can produce high torque eventually, but not quickly. This may matter for tasks such as sprinting, jumping, landing or rapid stepping.

Example 2: Improved RTD with stable peak torque

A client’s peak torque remains similar, but RTD improves after a training block.

This may suggest they are accessing their existing torque capacity more quickly.

Example 3: Low RTD with pain

A client shows low shoulder external rotation RTD and reports apprehension during the test.

This may reflect pain, guarding or confidence, not just reduced strength.

Example 4: Older adult balance context

An older adult shows low ankle plantar flexion RTD and also demonstrates slow stepping responses.

This may provide useful context for balance and function, but should be interpreted with gait, strength and functional testing.

Example 5: Athlete

A field sport athlete has good hip and knee peak torque but slower RTD on one side.

This may suggest a rapid torque production difference that could be relevant to sprinting or change-of-direction tasks, depending on broader findings.

Example 6: Post-injury monitoring

A client restores peak torque symmetry but still shows lower RTD on the previously affected side.

This may indicate that maximal strength has improved, but rapid torque production remains different.

FAQs

What is Rate of Torque Development?

Rate of Torque Development measures how quickly torque is produced around a joint. It shows the speed of joint-specific rotational force production.

What units is RTD measured in?

RTD is commonly measured in N·m/s. It may also be reported in lb·ft/s, kgf·m/s, kgf·cm/s or device-specific units.

Is RTD the same as torque?

No. Torque measures how much rotational force is produced. RTD measures how quickly that torque is produced.

What does high RTD mean?

High RTD usually means the client produced torque quickly in the tested position. This may be useful when the task requires rapid force production.

What does low RTD mean?

Low RTD usually means torque was produced more slowly. It may reflect reduced explosive strength, pain, hesitation, fatigue, poor familiarisation or testing differences.

Are there universal RTD norms?

No. RTD is highly dependent on joint, device, time window, sampling rate, filtering, start threshold and protocol. Use baseline, side-to-side comparison and matched reference data instead.

Is RTD useful for general fitness clients?

It can be, but it is usually more advanced than peak torque or peak force. RTD is most useful when the client’s goals involve speed, agility, power, balance recovery or dynamic movement.

Is RTD useful for older adults?

It may be useful because rapid torque production can be relevant to balance and falls-related tasks, but it should be interpreted with functional measures, gait, confidence and symptoms.

Can RTD diagnose a problem?

No. RTD can support assessment and monitoring, but it does not diagnose a condition or explain symptoms by itself.

Should RTD be used alone?

No. RTD should be interpreted with peak torque, symptoms, movement quality, baseline, function and client goals.

Key Takeaways

• RTD measures how quickly torque is produced.

• It is useful for understanding rapid joint-specific force production.

• High RTD generally suggests faster torque production.

• Low RTD generally suggests slower torque production, but context matters.

• RTD is especially relevant when tasks require fast force production.

• There are no universal RTD norms.

• RTD is highly sensitive to device, time window, start threshold, filtering and instructions.

• Measurz should record RTD with the exact protocol, unit, time window, symptoms and related metrics.

References

Maffiuletti, N. A., Aagaard, P., Blazevich, A. J., Folland, J., Tillin, N., & Duchateau, J. (2016). Rate of force development: Physiological and methodological considerations. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 116(6), 1091–1116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-016-3346-6

Martins, A. D., Brito, J. P., Fernandes, O., Gonçalves, B., Oliveira, R., & Batalha, N. (2025). Long-term effects on rate of torque development and fear of falling following high-speed resistance training in older adults. Scientific Reports, 15, Article 29139.

Mentiplay, B. F., Tan, D., Williams, G., Adair, B., Pua, Y.-H., Bower, K. J., & Clark, R. A. (2018). Assessment of isometric muscle strength and rate of torque development with hand-held dynamometry: Test-retest reliability and relationship with gait velocity after stroke. Journal of Biomechanics, 75, 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.04.032

Meyners, M., & Schulze, A. (2025). Data-driven recommendations for assessing the early-phase rate of torque development in isometric knee extension and flexion. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.70036

Porto, J. M., Freire Júnior, R. C., Capato, L. L., Spilla, S. B., Nakaishi, A. P. M., Braz, E. S., Faccio, A. F. F., & Abreu, D. C. C. (2022). Rate of torque development and torque steadiness of the lower limb and the occurrence of prospective falls in community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 30(2), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2020-0442

Sari, D. M., Lugade, V., & Lin, V. W. (2025). Validity and reliability of a low-cost and portable option for measuring isometric knee peak torque and rate of torque development. Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42978-025-00353-9

Yamada, M., Ikezoe, T., Yamamoto, T., Nakao, S., Komatsu, M., Takeuchi, T., Umegaki, H., & Tsuboyama, T. (2019). Rate of torque development and the risk of falls among community-dwelling older adults in Japan. Gait & Posture, 69, 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2019.01.015